Brigadier General John C. Caldwell in the Civil War

Brigadier General John C. Caldwell in the Civil War Early Life Born on April 17, 1833 in Lowell, VT, John Curtis Caldwell received his early schooling locally.   Interested in pursuing education as a career, he later attended Amherst College.   Graduating in 1855 with high honors, Caldwell moved to  East Machias, ME where he assumed the position of principal at Washington Academy.   He continued to hold this position for the next five years and became a respected member of the community.   With the attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861 and beginning of the Civil War, Caldwell left his post and sought a military commission.   Though he lacked any type of military experience, his connections within the state and ties to the Republican Party saw him obtain command of the 11th Maine Volunteer Infantry on November 12, 1861. Early Engagements Assigned to Major General George B. McClellans Army of the Potomac, Caldwells regiment traveled south in the spring of 1862 to take part in the Peninsula Campaign.   Despite his inexperience, he made a positive impression on his superiors and was chosen to command Brigadier General Oliver O. Howards brigade when that officer was wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines on June 1.   With this assignment came a promotion to brigadier general which was back-dated to April 28.   Leading his men in Brigadier General Israel B. Richardsons division of Major General Edwin V. Sumners II Corps, Caldwell earned high praise for his leadership in reinforcing Brigadier General Philip Kearnys division at the Battle of Glendale on June 30.   With the defeat of Union forces on the Peninsula, Caldwell and II Corps returned to Northern Virginia. Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville Arriving too late to take part in the Union defeat at the Second Battle of Manassas, Caldwell and his men were quickly engaged in the Maryland Campaign in early September.   Held in reserve during the Battle of South Mountain on September 14, Caldwells brigade saw intense fighting at the Battle of Antietam three days later.   Arriving on the field, Richardsons division began assaulting the Confederate position along the Sunken Road.   Reinforcing Brigadier General  Thomas F. Meaghers Irish Brigade, whose advance had stalled in the face of heavy resistance, Caldwells men renewed the attack.   As the fighting progressed, troops under Colonel Francis C. Barlow succeeded in turning the Confederate flank.   Pushing forward, Richardson and Caldwells men were ultimately halted by Confederate reinforcements under Major General James Longstreet.   Withdrawing, Richardson fell mortally wounded and command of the division briefly passed to Caldwell who was soon replaced by Brigadi er General Winfield S. Hancock. Though slightly wounded in the fighting, Caldwell remained in command of his brigade and led it three months later at the Battle of Fredericksburg.   In the course of the battle, his troops took part in the disastrous assault on Maryes Heights which saw the brigade suffer over 50% casualties and Caldwell wounded twice.  Ã‚   Though he performed well, one of his regiments broke and ran during the attack.   This, along with false rumors that he had hid during the fighting at Antietam, tarnished his reputation.   Despite these circumstances, Caldwell retained his role and took part in the Battle of Chancellorsville in early May 1863.   During the engagement, his troops helped stabilize the Union right after the defeat of Howards XI Corps and covered the withdrawal from the area around the Chancellor House. The Battle of Gettysburg In the wake of the defeat at Chancellorsville, Hancock ascended to lead II Corps and on May 22 Caldwell assumed command of the division.   In this new role, Caldwell moved north with Major General George G. Meades Army of the Potomac in pursuit of General Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia.   Arriving at the Battle of Gettysburg on the morning of July 2, Caldwells division initially moved into a reserve role behind Cemetery Ridge.   That afternoon, as a large assault by Longstreet threatened to overwhelm Major General Daniel Sickles III Corps, he received orders to move south and reinforce the Union line in the Wheatfield.   Arriving, Caldwell deployed his division and swept Confederate forces from the field as well as occupied the woods to the west.   Though triumphant, Caldwells men were compelled to retreat when the collapse of the Union position at the Peach Orchard to the northwest led to them being flanked by the advancing enemy.   In the course of the fighting around the Wheatfield, Caldwells division sustained over 40% casualties.   The next day, Hancock sought to temporarily place Caldwell in command of II Corps but was overruled by Meade who preferred a West Pointer hold the post.   Later on July 3, after Hancock was wounded repulsing Picketts Charge, command of the corps devolved to Caldwell.   Meade moved swiftly and inserted Brigadier General William Hayes, a West Pointer, in the post that evening despite Caldwell being senior in rank. Later Career Following Gettysburg, Major General George Sykes, commander of V Corps, criticized Caldwells performance in the Wheatfield.   Investigated by Hancock, who had faith in subordinate, he was quickly cleared by a court of inquiry.   Despite this, Caldwells reputation was permanently damaged.   Though he led his division during the Bristoe and Mine Run Campaigns that fall, when the Army of the Potomac was reorganized in the spring of 1864, he was removed from his post.   Ordered to Washington, DC, Caldwell spent the remainder of the war serving on various boards.   Following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, he was selected to serve in the honor guard which bore the body back to Springfield, IL.   Later that year, Caldwell received a brevet promotion to major general in recognition of his service. Departing the army on January 15, 1866, Caldwell, still only thirty-three years old, returned to Maine and commenced practicing law.   After briefly serving in the state legislature, he held the post of adjutant general of the Maine Militia between 1867 and 1869.   Departing this position, Caldwell received an appointment as US Consul in Valparaiso.   Remaining in Chile for five years, he later obtained similar assignments in Uruguay and Paraguay.   Returning home in 1882, Caldwell accepted a final diplomatic post in 1897 when he became US Consul in San Jose, Costa Rica.   Serving under both Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, he retired in 1909.   Caldwell died on August 31, 1912, at Calais, ME while visiting one of his daughters.   His remains were interred at St. Stephen Rural Cemetery across the river in St. Stephen, New Brunswick. Sources Brigadier General John C. CaldwellFind a Grave: John C. CaldwellJohn C. Caldwell

Overview of Sociologys Conflict Theory

Overview of Sociologys Conflict Theory Conflict theory states that tensions and conflicts arise when resources, status, and power are unevenly distributed between groups in society  and that these conflicts become the engine for social change. In this context, power can be understood as control of material resources and accumulated wealth, control of politics and the institutions that make up society, and ones social status relative to others (determined not just by class but by race, gender, sexuality, culture, and religion, among other things). Karl Marx A house may be large or small; as long as the neighboring houses are likewise small, it satisfies all social requirement for a residence. But let there arise next to the little house a palace, and the little house shrinks to a hut. Wage Labour and Capital (1847) Marxs Conflict Theory Conflict theory originated in the work of Karl Marx, who focused on the causes and consequences of class conflict between the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production and the capitalists) and the proletariat (the working class and the poor). Focusing on the economic, social, and political implications of the rise of capitalism in Europe, Marx theorized that this system, premised on the existence of a powerful minority class (the bourgeoisie) and an oppressed majority class (the proletariat), created class conflict because the interests of the two were at odds, and resources were unjustly distributed among them. Within this system an unequal social order was maintained through ideological coercion which created consensusand acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as determined by the bourgeoisie.  Marx theorized that the work of producing consensus was done in the superstructure of society, which is composed of social  institutions, political structures, and culture, and what it produced consensus for was the base, the economic relations of production.   Marx reasoned that as the socio-economic conditions worsened for the proletariat, they would develop a class consciousness that revealed their exploitation at the hands of the wealthy capitalist class of bourgeoisie, and then they would revolt, demanding changes to smooth the conflict. According to Marx, if the changes made to appease conflict maintained a capitalist system, then the cycle of conflict would repeat. However, if the changes made created a new system, like socialism, then peace and stability would be achieved. Evolution of Conflict Theory Many social theorists have built on Marxs conflict theory to bolster it, grow it, and refine it over the years. Explaining why Marxs theory of revolution did not manifest in his lifetime,  Italian scholar and activist  Antonio Gramsci  argued that the power of ideology was stronger than Marx had realized  and that more work needed to be done to overcome cultural hegemony, or  rule through common sense. Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, critical theorists who were part of The Frankfurt School, focused their work on how the rise of mass culturemass produced art, music, and mediacontributed to the maintenance of cultural hegemony. More recently, C. Wright Mills drew on conflict theory to describe the rise of a tiny power elite composed of military, economic, and political figures who have ruled America from the mid-twentieth century. Many others have drawn on conflict theory to develop other types of theory within the social sciences, including feminist theory, critical race theory, postmodern and postcolonial theory, queer theory, post-structural theory, and theories of globalization and world systems. So, while initially conflict theory described class conflicts specifically, it has lent itself over the years to studies of how other kinds of conflicts, like those premised on race, gender, sexuality, religion, culture, and nationality, among others, are a part of contemporary social structures, and how they affect our lives. Applying Conflict Theory Conflict theory and its variants are used by many sociologists today to study a wide range of social problems. Examples include: How todays global capitalism creates a global system of power and inequality.How words play a role in reproducing and justifying conflict.The causes and consequences of the gender pay gap between men and women. Updated  by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.